Background & Analysis
Country-specific:
China
has a long and rich history, beginning with a prehistoric Xia dynasty about 4,000 years ago.
This was then followed by the Shang dynasty, during which a writing
system and bronze metallurgy was developed. In 221 B.C., much of present-day
China was united under the Qin dynasty. During this dynasty, construction of
the Great Wall began, and the currency, writing, and measurement systems were
standardized. The Qin )
dynasty was followed by a number of dynasties—the major ones being Han, Sui,
Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing. Additional contributions and inventions
classified by dynasty are outlined in
a chart by the Baltimore County Public School(Caldwell
& Fullem, 2006).
 |
| Contributions and inventions categorized by dyansty (Caldwell & Fullem, 2006) |
The Xinhai Revolution (辛亥革命) in 1911 ended the
2,000 year long imperial system. The outcome included the overthrowing of the
Qing Dynasty and the formation of the Republic of China under Sun Yat-sen.
However, the country lacked unity and was divided between the Chinese Communist
Party (CCP), Gong Chan Dang and the Nationalist Party (NP), or Kuo Min Tang
(KMT). After years of bitter civil war, on October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong declared
the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the start of
Communist government in China (Halsall, 1999).
Following its
establishment, a range of reforms emerged, including land, social, cultural and
economic reform. Land was redistributed from the landlords to the peasants,
social distinctions were effaced, and a ‘Four Olds’ campaign was launched to
remove old ideas, habits, customs and culture. Economically, agriculture and
heavy industry were heavily promoted, while private enterprise was essentially suppressed.
In 1958, following a successful First Five-Year Plan, Mao Zedong spearheaded
the launch of the Great Leap Forward, an economic plan meant to speed up the
industrialization of China and further develop its economy. Characterized by
small-scale ‘backyard-furnaces’ for steel production and collectivization to
form large agricultural communes, the Great Leap Forward ultimately proved to
be an economic blow to China, resulting in severe famines and a crippled
economy. While slow, economic recovery followed as the economy gradually
transitioned from a centrally planned economy to a socialist market economy. More
elements of free enterprise were implemented—including contract responsibility agriculture
(as opposed to set quotas, increased enterprise manager autonomy, and the return
of individual enterprise. China also entered the world of international trade,
especially with the establishment of four special economic zones in 1979, which
were conducive of foreign investment and trade. This was followed by the
designation of fourteen major cities as economic development zones in 1984 (Zhu, 2012).
Today, China is second
to the US in terms of nominal GDP, and has had one of the fast-growing
economies in the world (World Development Indicators Database, 2014). It is now also
a major player in the realm of international trade. However, while impressive,
China still has a long way to go, as it is only 82nd in terms of per
capita nominal GDP. As the economy continues to develop through
industrialization, China needs to keep up with and address the simultaneous
urbanization of its population. When the PRC was first established, the
population was 90 percent rural. Now, as of 2010, about half of the population
lives in urban cities (Ren, 2013). However, the hukou system has proved to be a major
barrier for the urban migrant population—a whopping 221 million as of 2010. Established
to restrict rural to urban migration, the hukou
system is still in effect, though more relaxed. Nevertheless, disparities
between urban and rural residents still exist with respect to employment,
housing, transportation, education, healthcare, etc. (Cheng & Selden, 1994).
In terms of culture,
China has many customs and traditions with ancient origins. The traditional
Chinese holidays show China’s strong ties to agriculture, as they occur around
harvest times and are synced with the Chinese lunar calendar, which was used—and
still is—by farmers to set dates for planting and harvesting. Notable holidays
include Chinese New Year and Mid-Autumn Festival. During these two holidays in
particular, family members reunite to celebrate together. In recent years, as
the growing urban migrant population return to their rural hometowns to
celebrate New Year, the period before then, dubbed Chunyun (Spring festival
travel), is marked by very heavy traffic, with the number of passenger journeys
exceeding 3.5 billion in 2014 (“Transport
system--Chunyun,” 2014).
|
This exhibits one of Chinese society’s key values—the importance of family. In addition to family and filial piety, harmony, benevolence, courtesy, and loyalty are also core values in Chinese society (Zhang, 2013). These societal values are rooted in ancient schools of thought—namely Confucianism and Daoism—and have remained largely intact today. At the broader level—Chinese society is diverse given its 55 ethnic minorities and regional cultures—each with its own dialect, customs, and cuisine. For example, Chengdu is located in the province of Sichuan, which is characterized by spicy dishes often featuring the 麻辣 (‘numb-spicy’) Sichuan pepper.
 |
| A spciy Sichuan dish (Gordon, 2010) |
Service
specific:
While
in recent years China has been experiencing rapid economic growth, a major
underlying consequence is increasingly rampant pollution. 16 of the 20 most
polluted cities are in China. This situation has also had an impact on the
economy, estimated by the World Bank to have cost China 9 percent of its GDP in
2008. Historically, China’s focus was always on industrialization and growth,
and not until 1972 at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment did
China begin working on environmental initiatives. Since then environmental
regulations have been difficult to enforce due to regional decentralization in
China—provinces received authority to promote township and village enterprises
(TVEs), which proved an economic success but hindered environmental efforts. At
the local level, officials often ignored the established standards and policies
(Xu, 2014).
As
pollution continues to worsen, the Chinese population has begun expressing a
desire for change through demonstrations and the formation of NGOs dedicated
towards improving the environment. The government
has also begun to respond to some degree—releasing its first national blueprint
for environmental improvement in 2013, including goals to meet by 2020. The
government has also started requiring about 15,000 factories to report air
emissions and water discharge data publicly. $275 billion has also been pledged
to be spent over the course of 5 years dedicated to addressing air pollution (Xu, 2014).
 |
| A Beijing highway (“China reveals new plans,” 2013) |
While
air pollution may be the most visible problem, water pollution is also a major
concern. In 2014, a report released by the Ministry of Environmental Protection
documented 60% of China’s groundwater to be either ‘bad’ or ‘very bad,’ and 17
of the 31 major freshwater lakes were polluted to some degree. With respect to
China’s rapid urbanization, 300 of the 657 major cities are facing water
shortages due to overuse, contamination and waste (Roberts, 2014; Xu, 2014). In rural
areas, the water shortage is even more severe, with between 300 and 500 million
people without access to piped water. Heavy industries along the waterways have
contributed to the pollution by not properly processing waste or simply failing
to do so. Water issues have not just been in the context of access and
contamination; the shortage is also causing desertification—arable land becoming
deserts (Xu, 2014).
While
in China I will be working with Chengdu Urban Rivers Association (CURA) with a
focus on water quality, water conservation, and environmental awareness. In
1992, the Chengdu government initiated the Funan River Project to address the contamination
of the Funan River, a major water source to the Sichuan province. Although tens
of billions of dollars were spent to improve conditions, a later investigation
revealed that much of the pollution was due to upstream pollution rather than
from the city itself. In 2003, CURA was established to address this problem,
and does so through promoting sustainable water use and pollution management,
offering training and raising awareness, as well as initiating change at the policy
level. Some current projects include expanding a community-supported
agriculture (CSA) program linking farmers who follow sustainable practices to
urban consumers, working with rural communities to promote and develop
ecological practices and infrastructure, as well as regular water quality
monitoring in the area.
Breaking News
Country-specific:
China’s
largest non-government traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) organization, the
World Federation of Chinese Medicine Societies (WFCMS) established an official
relationship with the World Health Organization (WHO). WFCMS will now be
attending future meetings held by the WHO and offer a voice on TCM for serving
other countries throughout the world. Currently, TCM is practiced in 164
countries and regions, and is in growing demand for disease prevention, health
promotion and maintenance (Wang, 2015).
I found this article interesting in
that it highlights how China is moving forward while simultaneously staying
grounded in its roots. TCM dates back to prehistory, and involves the use of herbal
medicine and a holistic approach. Today, TCM is still quite prevalent in China,
though there is also growing acceptance and demand for ‘Western’ medicine. This
article discussed the acceptance of TCM by the WHO as a way of improving health
internationally. Not only does this show how China has maintained its
traditions in the midst of rapid growth and development, but also that is
becoming more open on the international stage and fostering relationships.
In
the recent government work report delivered on March 5th, Premier Li
Keqiang announced an ‘Internet Plus’ action plan “to integrate the mobile
Internet, cloud computing, big data, and the Internet of Things with modern manufacturing,
to encourage the healthy development of e-commerce, industrial networks, and
Internet banking, and to guide Internet-based companies to increase their presence
in the international market” (PRC State Council, 2015). This is a move
towards promoting entrepreneurship; the Internet industry has already helped to
create many of the 13.22 million new urban jobs in China last year. According
to Jack Ma, the founder of Alibaba, a major e-commerce company, Alibaba helped
to indirectly create 10 million jobs. Yu Yang, the CEO of Analysys
International, an industry consulting company, said the ‘Internet Plus’ action
plan is expected to be similar to ‘Washington’s information superhighway
strategy’ (PRC State Council, 2015).
This
article was another indication of China’s rapid economic development. In the speech, Li did not detail specific
aspects of the ‘Internet Plus’ action plan, leaving me curious as to how this
plan will ultimately be implemented. I am also wondering how this plan will
affect the current firewall kept in place by the government. In order to
develop and foster developing Internet enterprises, I would imagine the existing
firewall is a barrier. Would the government consider easing the firewall in
order to be more aligned with its apparent goals of economic development? Some
of the numbers cited in this article also surprised me; while I had known of
Alibaba and the popularity of e-commerce in China, I was not fully aware of the
scope of the industry in terms of employment and job creation.
Issue-specific:
Restaurants in Kunming, Yunnan
province have recently been banned by the Environmental Protection Bureau from
using firewood to cook Chaihuoji (firewood chicken), a popular chicken dish, in
a move towards addressing the air pollution. Existing restaurants must replace
firewood with clean fuel, such as charcoal and gas. According to a local
source, cooking a 2.5kg chicken takes 1.5-2.5 kg of firewood. This policy is
similar to the one implemented by Chongqing earlier this year. To reduce smog,
Chongqing banned smoked bacon, open-air barbecue, and chicken cooked from
firewood by restaurants. At the moment, there is no data as to whether this ban
will help to reduce air pollution. In terms of enforcement, surprise inspections
will be done and rely on the public to report violators, who will be fined and
required to change.
I was intrigued after reading this
article—while the regulation of air pollution at the local level was certainly
encouraging to see, I was not sure if the policy itself would be entirely
effective. Do the restaurants’ uses of firewood contribute that significantly to
air pollution? I thought it might have been more logical to implement policies
regarding commute and transportation—i.e. making it more conducive to take public
transportation or carpool. Nevertheless, the article displayed the direct
conflict between enterprise and environmental interests. The restaurants
prepare the chicken in a traditional, authentic way using firewood; switching
to another source of fuel may likely affect their businesses adversely. This
also was an example of the diffuse environmental regulation system within China—this
policy was established by the local environmental agency, and will be enforced
by them as well. Perhaps regulating restaurants was the extent to which the
local agency could regulate air pollution, and a larger scale reform had to
come from a more central directive?
Under
the Dome is a documentary of a year-long investigation of pollution in China,
made and funded by the investigative journalist Chai Jing. The film features
the social and health costs of pollution, and criticizes China’s negligent environmental
laws. While even praised by the newly appointed environmental protection
minister, Chen Jining, the film was removed less than 48 hours after first
being posted. Neverthless, it received over 100 million views within that time
span (it is still available with English subtitles on
Youtube). Interestingly enough,
Premier Li Keqiang had also just recently declared pollution to be a blight on
people’s lives and that he would fight it with all the government’s might. This
was met by outrage among the Chinese population, voiced through social media.
This
article reflected the contradictions within the Chinese government and the
discrepancy between the needs voiced by the citizens and the steps taken by the
government. In contrast with the other articles, which outlined various aspects
of how China has been developing, this article showed the government’s tight
censorship and control that remains a reality in China. I was disappointed by
how the government voiced support for environmental awareness and even the
documentary itself, but ultimately chose to pull the film offline. This is
likely indicative of the government’s approach to environmental issues in
general—the government has plans and is implementing them to improve the
environment, but does not tolerate criticism of the plans or existing
conditions. Nevertheless, the whopping number of views suggests that the
Chinese population is very aware of the pressing urgency to address such
environmental hazards. I would like to find out whether this awareness has
translated to action among the general public in urban settings.
Faculty/Community
Connection
Faculty:
Dr.
Qilin Li
I
had the chance to meet with Dr. Qilin Li, an associate professor of civil and
environmental engineering. She teaches courses and conducts research on the
various physical and chemical processes affecting water quality, with a goal of
contributing towards a sustainable water supply. Not only was Dr. Li knowledgeable
of my service issue, she is also from Chengdu and visits the city regularly.
Thus, I was able to get an idea of water quality efforts in the context of Chengdu,
as well as in comparison to the water quality efforts in the U.S.
Dr. Li shared with me how
environmental issues were being addressed in China, pointing out how the
government’s approach has been to use technology to address problems, but that
the problems are due to policies and management issues that cannot be resolved otherwise.
Something we may take for granted in the US is the transparency of building
projects to the public, which entail public hearings and feedback. On the other
hand, in China there is no such precedence, and even in the event that such
hearings are implemented, few would attend due to the deep distrust between the
government and the public. Many times, people are reluctant to believe what
they are told by the government.
Concerning the environmental protection
agencies (EPA) in China, I learned that the local EPAs were fairly handicapped
in their ability to ensure standards were met. The EPAs typically do not have
the resources to check local industries regularly. Furthermore, since their
inspections are announced, the factories tend to run their water treatment systems
only when the EPA comes to inspect, meaning most of the time the waste water is
left untreated.
As for the public’s view of water
pollution, Dr. Li said it wasn’t as big a concern among the people in Chengdu,
as it is overshadowed by the more visible air pollution the city faces.
Additionally, people are able to sidestep the pollution by drinking bottled
water, a common practice given its availability and affordability.
Dr. Li also shared some tips
concerning staying in Chengdu and my service project.
I
was a bit worried about whether the Sichuan accent would be too strong for me
to understand, but was told it was quite similar to the standard pronunciation.
With respect to Chengdu, the people are friendly, and the public transportation
is very convenient—a subway system was recently built and the city also has a light
rail. She put me in contact with a Rice alum who is currently working at the
local EPA to get water quality data and other information. She also had
connections with Sichuan University, and offered to connect me with a faculty
there for water sample analysis.
As
for the project itself, she gave very applicable advice—that I should make a
week-by-week schedule for what I would do based on my service description and get
feedback from CURA staff to ensure it is feasible prior to the start of my
service. I certainly hope to apply this once I receive a more detailed
description of what I will be doing with CURA. The information Dr. Li shared
with me was very relevant, and has introduced me to understanding the some of
the differences in public opinion and environmental regulation between the US
and China.
Community
Connection: Dr. Stephanie Glenn
I was able to get in contact with
Dr. Stephanie Glenn, Senior Research Scientist and Program Director for Hydrology
and Watersheds at Houston Advanced Research Center (HARC), an environmental
nonprofit research organization. HARC focuses on research as well as projects
for sustainable development, more specifically with large-scale data analysis, stakeholder
engagement, and support for policy development. When I spoke with Dr. Glenn,
she told me more about her current project, the Double Bayou Watershed
Protection Plan. A watershed protection plan (WPP), is a voluntary effort led
by stakeholders as means of improving water quality—stakeholders are defined to
include anyone who is involved in water quality, who lives/works/plays in the bayou,
or who is a landowner. The Double Bayou forked into east and west sides, both
of which feed into Trinity Bay. The west bayou was on the list of impaired
waters for too much bacteria and too little dissolved oxygen. As a result, HARC
was tasked with initiating the development of a WPP among the community, which
was started in 2011. Dr. Glenn anticipates the WPP will be completed by the end
of this year and submitted to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for
approval, which will then qualify the solutions listed in the WPP (aka best
management practices, or BMP) to be approved for funding eligibilities. Upon
the application for and receipt of grants, these BMPs can then be implemented.
Dr. Glenn shared about her
experiences with this project, the first stakeholder engagement project she has
led. This was a very different experience for her, since she has traditionally
been used to collecting, analyzing and presenting research. This time, the
project had a much stronger community focus. She acknowledged it was difficult
initially translating research data to something relevant to potential
stakeholders to convince them first that the water quality did not meet
standards, and why they should develop a WPP. Being an outsider, she realized
people were hesitant to trust the data, especially since she had not gained
their trust either. As a result, she learned to present what they were the most
interested in—i.e. why the bayou was on the impaired waters list by using
user-friendly charts of bacteria. She also garnered interest by presenting how
water testing was done. Since then, the WPP has come a long way; Dr. Glenn has
gained the communities trust and has a committed group of stakeholders working
to develop the WPP.
In
initially getting to know the community, she started by trying to meet people through
the locals she knew from previous projects. In addition to the big stakeholder
meetings, she also hosted smaller focus groups, giving her the chance to have
more one-on-one connections to establish trust and hear concerns. She mentioned
listening was one of the foremost ways of gaining trust. She also mentioned the
importance of seemingly small considerations, such as ordering from a local
restaurant for meetings to support the community.
After
I shared a bit more about my project over the summer, she suggested I obtain a
working knowledge of how the water quality criteria prior to my trip, such as
the specific quantitative values, how they were established, to know what the
factory by-products are, etc. She also emphasized the importance of
communicating with people who had been there before me—“30 minutes with the
right person can save 40 hours of work.” I certainly plan to follow through
with her suggestions, as well as apply what she shared about gaining trust within
a community as an outsider, as I may be helping to conduct medical history surveys
of residents of a village near the Zi Ping Pu Reservoir.
Overall,
the WPP project sounds similar to the types of projects CURA develops—working at
the community level to improve water quality. However, there is a noticeable
difference in terms of the government’s involvement between the two agencies.
Dr. Glenn told me that HARC was encouraged by the Texas State and Soil Water
Conservation Board to apply for the funding set aside for the Double Bayou WPP
development given its status as impaired water. Additionally, the approval of
the WPP will allow for the application of additional funds for its
implementation. On the other hand, The Chinese government does not work as
closely with NGOs like CURA, and has less structured funding for such
organizations to carry out environmental improvement efforts.
Once
back from my service trip, I would like to stay connected with this issue not
only by sharing my experiences with others, but also hopefully by getting involved
with service related to water conservation. I met the Executive Director of the
Citizens Environmental Coalition, Rachel Powers. Her background has been in
water quality and conservation, and has offered to connect me volunteering
opportunities in Houston.
Reflection
My
reason for choosing to do service in China was because I wanted to ensure I
could contribute readily to the organization. China is the ideal country for me
to do so given my familiarity with the language and culture. At the same time,
a summer in China will give me the chance to further improve my proficiency
both in the language and ‘in the culture.’ From my Chinese 411/412 classes, I
was able to get a glimpse of some of various issues unique to China. While the
main issue I will be exposed to is urbanization and conservation, I believe
being in China for an extended period of time will help me see a variety of
other issues for myself and better understand them. With respect to CURA, I am
looking forward to working with an NGO in China and getting a feel for how it
works and how it differs from an NGO in the US. While water quality and water
conservation is fairly new to me, I am certainly interested in the issue,
especially given its importance in the context of China’s rapid development and
urbanization. I hope to gain skills to apply once I am back from the trip. I am
also interested learning more about CURA’s community-supported agriculture
program, which relates to an area I am more familiar with—food sustainability
and food accessibility.
Over the course of this
ISP, I learned more about China as well as my service issue on water quality
and conservation through both the literature review and the conversations I had
with Rice faculty and a community organization. The advice I received from Dr.
Li and Dr. Glenn were very insightful, as were their experiences. Though
comprehensive, this ISP certainly was not all encompassing. While I was able to
gather the general gist of public opinion towards pollution in China, I do not
think I will have an accurate picture until I arrive at Chengdu and begin my
service. I would also like to learn more about the newly implemented
environmental law and how effective it has been so far and how well it is being
implemented. While I have found some resources, I think quantitative data is often
of limited availability.
This ISP also
highlighted the close ties between pollution and China’s urbanization and
economic development. I would like to study this further, as well as the other
issues China needs to address as result of urbanization. I would also like to
look more into how pollution has adversely impacted the health of both urban
and rural residents. Also, as previously mentioned, I would like to do more
research on CSAs and their prevalence in China.
Bibliography
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